The role of monsoon dynamics in PM2.5 concentration during the 2023–2024 El Niño event in Southeast Asia: a public health concern
Abstract
Background: El Niño and positive Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) events can disrupt monsoon circulation and increase air pollution exposure in Southeast Asia, particularly PM2.5, which poses significant public health risks.
Objective: This study aimed to analyze PM2.5 exposure during the 2023–2024 El Niño period and assess its potential public health risks in Southeast Asia.
Methods: Daily PM2.5 concentrations in major Southeast Asian capitals during the 2023–2024 El Niño period were analyzed to evaluate temporal variability, exceedances of WHO and national standards, and potential transboundary pollution using Spearman correlation analysis.
Results: Jakarta and Hanoi showed the highest daily median PM2.5 concentrations, exceeding 100 µg/m3. However, exceedances of WHO and national air quality standards occurred in almost all ASEAN capitals. Strong positive correlations were observed between Yangon and Vientiane (r = 0.753, p < 0.01), Vientiane and Bangkok (r = 0.695, p < 0.01), and Yangon and Bangkok (r = 0.670, p < 0.01), likely due to shared continental and monsoonal influences. In contrast, weaker correlations were found among maritime cities such as Jakarta, Singapore, and Kuala Lumpur because of variable sea–land circulation and tropical convection. Elevated PM2.5 concentrations during El Niño may increase respiratory and cardiovascular health risks.
Conclusion: PM2.5 concentrations during the 2023–2024 El Niño period exceeded WHO and national standards in most Southeast Asian capitals, highlighting the need for cross-border mitigation strategies and integrated early warning systems to protect public health.
Full text article
Generated from XML file
References
1. Payus CM, Syazni MSN, Sentian J. Extended air pollution index (API) as tool of sustainable indicator in the air quality assessment: El-Nino events with climate change driven. Heliyon. 2022;8(3). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e09157
2. Nguyen LSP, Chang JHW, Griffith SM, et al. Trans-boundary air pollution in a Southeast Asian megacity: Case studies of the synoptic meteorological mechanisms and impacts on air quality. Atmos Pollut Res. 2022;13(4):101366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2022.101366
3. Fan Y, Li J, Zhu S, Li H, Zhou B. Trends and variabilities of precipitation and temperature extremes over Southeast Asia during 1981–2017. Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics. 2022;134(4):78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00703-022-00913-6
4. Nurdiati S, Sopaheluwakan A, Septiawan P. Joint pattern analysis of forest fire and drought indicators in Southeast Asia associated with ENSO and IOD. Atmosphere (Basel). 2022;13(8):1198. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13081198
5. Alahmad B, Khraishah H, Althalji K, Borchert W, Al-Mulla F, Koutrakis P. Connections between air pollution, climate change, and cardiovascular health. Canadian Journal of Cardiology. 2023;39(9):1182-1190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cjca.2023.03.025
6. Ustinaviciene R, Venclovienė J, Luksiene D, et al. Impact of Ambient Air Pollution with PM2.5 on Stroke Occurrence: Data from Kaunas (Lithuania) Stroke Register (2010–2022). Atmosphere (Basel). 2024;15(11):1327. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15111327
7. Othman M, Latif MT, Hamid, HHA, Uning R, Khumsaeng T, Phairuang W, Lung SCC. Spatial–temporal variability and health impact of particulate matter during a 2019–2020 biomass burning event in Southeast Asia. Scientific reports. 2022;12(1): 7630.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-11409-z
8. Health Effects Institute. State of Global Air 2025. A Report on Air Pollution and Its Role in the World’s Leading Causes of Death. 2025. https://www.stateofglobalair.org/resources/report/state-global-air-report-2025
9. Bikis A. Urban air pollution and greenness in relation to public health. J Environ Public Health. 2023;2023(1):8516622. https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/8516622
10. Lestari P, Arrohman MK, Damayanti S, Klimont Z. Emissions and spatial distribution of air pollutants from anthropogenic sources in Jakarta. Atmos Pollut Res. 2022;13(9):101521. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2022.101521
11. Haines A, Lam HCY. El Niño and health in an era of unprecedented climate change. The Lancet. 2023;402(10415):1811-1813. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(23)01664-1
12. Sharma S, Chandra M, Kota SH. Health effects associated with PM2.5: A systematic review. Curr Pollut Rep. 2020;6(4):345-367. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40726-020-00155-3
13. Burnett R, Chen H, Szyszkowicz M, et al. Global estimates of mortality associated with long-term exposure to outdoor fine particulate matter. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2018;115(38):9592-9597. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c01764.s001
14. Cohen AJ, Brauer M, Burnett R, et al. Estimates and 25-year trends of the global burden of disease attributable to ambient air pollution: an analysis of data from the Global Burden of Diseases Study 2015. The lancet. 2017;389(10082):1907-1918. https://doi.org/10.1289/isee.2014.o-308
15. Yim SHL, Hou X, Guo J, Yang Y. Contribution of local emissions and transboundary air pollution to air quality in Hong Kong during El Niño-Southern Oscillation and heatwaves. Atmos Res. 2019;218:50-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2018.10.021
16. Lee BPYH, Davies ZG, Struebig MJ. Smoke pollution disrupted biodiversity during the 2015 El Niño fires in Southeast Asia. Environmental Research Letters. 2017;12(9):94022. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aa87ed
17. Hayasaka H, Sepriando A. Severe air pollution due to peat fires during 2015 super El Niño in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Land-atmospheric research applications in South and Southeast Asia. Published online 2018:129-142. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67474-2_7
18. UNOCHA. Asia and the Pacific: El Niño in Review (2023-2024) . 2024. https://www.unocha.org/publications/report/afghanistan/asia-and-pacific-el-nino-review-2023-2024-10-may-2024
19. Abdullah S, Mansor AA, Napi NNLM, et al. Air quality status during 2020 Malaysia Movement Control Order (MCO) due to 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) pandemic. Sci Total Environ. 2020;729:139022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139022
20. Laoin P. Ministry monitoring air quality as pollution levels rise. Vientiane Times; 2020. Available from: https://www.vientianetimes.org.la/freeContent/FreeConten_Ministry_32.php
21. Dominutti, X Mari, JL Jaffrezo, VTN Dinh, S Chifflet, C Guigue, L Guyomarc’h, CT Vu. Disentangling fine particles (PM2.5) composition in Hanoi, Vietnam: Emission sources and oxidative potential Science of the Total Environment, 2024. Sci Total Environ. 2024;923: 171466. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.171466
22. Vongruang P, Suppoung K, Kirtsaeng S, Prueksakorn K, Thao PTB, Pimonsree S. Development of meteorological criteria for classifying PM2.5 risk in a coastal industrial province in Thailand. Aerosol Air Qual Res. 2024;24(10):230321. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.230321
23. PP No.22. Peraturan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia Nomor 22 tahun 2021 tentang Penyelenggaraan Perlindungan dan Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup. Kementerian Sekretariat Negara Republik Indonesia; 2021. Available from: https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Details/161852/pp-no-22-tahun-2021
24. Myanmar Govenrment. Myanmar National Environmental Quality (Emission) Guideliness. 2015. https://www.myanmar-responsiblebusiness.org/pdf/2015-12-29-National-Environmental-Quality_Emission_Guidelines_en.pdf
25. MSE Singapore. Clean Air | Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment. 2025. https://www.mse.gov.sg/policies/clean-air/
26. Zehri S, Yulihastin E, Marpaung F, et al. Diverse impact of 2023 El Niño on weather patterns over the Indonesian Maritime Continent. Journal of Southern Hemisphere Earth Systems Science . 2025;75(2). https://doi.org/10.1071/es25005
27. Nguyen THH, Wang G, Chen W, et al. Risk Assessment and Management Strategy of Coastal Erosion in the Red River Delta, Vietnam. Land 2025, Vol 14, Page 1247. 2025;14(6):1247. https://doi.org/10.3390/land14061247
28. Abdillah MR, Kanno Y, Iwasaki T, Matsumoto J. Cold surge pathways in east Asia and their tropical impacts. J Clim. 2021;34(1):157-170. https://doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-20-0552.1
29. Nguyen DN. Effects of ENSO on cold - air activities and tropical cyclones in Vietnam. Vietnam Journal of Science, Technology and Engineering. 2017;59(2):88-91. https://doi.org/10.31276/vjste.59(2).88
30. Naidin S, Sentian J, Adnan FAF, Herman F, Mohd Hashim SR. Decade-Long Analysis: Unravelling the Spatio-Temporal Dynamics of PM10 Concentrations in Malaysian Borneo. Aerosol Air Qual Res. 2024;24(2):230176. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.230176
31. Hassan Bran S, Macatangay R, Chotamonsak C, Chantara S, Surapipith V. Understanding the seasonal dynamics of surface PM2.5 mass distribution and source contributions over Thailand. Atmos Environ. 2024;331:120613. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2024.120613
32. Atkinson RW, Kang S, Anderson HR, Mills IC, Walton HA. Epidemiological time series studies of PM2.5 and daily mortality and hospital admissions: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Thorax. 2014;69(7):660-665. https://doi.org/10.1289/isee.2016.3648
33. Yin S, Wang X, Zhang X, Guo M, Miura M, Xiao Y. Influence of biomass burning on local air pollution in mainland Southeast Asia from 2001 to 2016. Environmental Pollution. 2019;254:112949. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.07.117
34. Wasi’ah NR, Iriana W, Qonita S. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science Comparison of Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5) in Urban Areas Southeast Asia in Compliance with WHO Guidelines. In: 2025. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1448/1/012009
35. Wan Mahiyuddin WR, Ismail R, Mohammad Sham N, Ahmad NI, Nik Hassan NMN. Cardiovascular and respiratory health effects of fine particulate matters (PM2.5): a review on time series studies. Atmosphere (Basel). 2023;14(5):856. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14050856
36. Nguyen HD, Bang HQ, Quan NH, Quang NX, Duong TA. Effect of Biomass Burnings on Population Exposure and Health Impact at the End of 2019 Dry Season in Southeast Asia. Atmosphere 2024, Vol 15, Page 1280. 2024;15(11):1280. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202407.1425.v1
37. Wei Y, Pu Z. Diurnal cycle of precipitation and near-surface atmospheric conditions over the maritime continent: land–sea contrast and impacts of ambient winds in cloud-permitting simulations. Clim Dyn. 2022;58(9):2421-2449. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-021-06012-3
38. Lestari P, Arrohman MK, Damayanti S, Klimont Z. Emissions and spatial distribution of air pollutants from anthropogenic sources in Jakarta. Atmos Pollut Res. 2022;13(9):101521. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2022.101521
39. Lestari P, Damayanti S, Arrohman MK. Emission Inventory of Pollutants (CO, SO2, PM2.5, and NOX) In Jakarta Indonesia. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci. 2020;489(1):012014. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/489/1/012014
40. Rahman SA, Hamzah MS, Elias MS, et al. A long term study on characterization and source apportionment of particulate pollution in Klang Valley, Kuala Lumpur. Aerosol Air Qual Res. 2015;15(6):2291-2304. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2015.03.0188
41. Kwan SC, Tainio M, Woodcock J, Hashim JH. Health co-benefits in mortality avoidance from implementation of the mass rapid transit (MRT) system in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Rev Environ Health. 2016;31(1):179-183. https://doi.org/10.1515/reveh-2015-0038
42. Molina LT, Velasco E, Retama A, Zavala M. Experience from Integrated Air Quality Management in the Mexico City Metropolitan Area and Singapore. Atmosphere 2019, Vol 10, Page 512. 2019;10(9):512. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos10090512
43. Amnuaylojaroen T, Parasin N. Pathogenesis of PM2.5-related disorders in different age groups: children, adults, and the elderly. Epigenomes. 2024;8(2):13. https://doi.org/10.3390/epigenomes8020013
44. Charusombat P. ASEAN cooperation on transboundary haze pollution: The perspective of institutional incremental change. Journal of Environmental Information Science. 2023;2022(2):1-12. https://doi.org/10.11492/ceispapersen.2022.2_1
45. Landrigan P J, Fuller , Acosta NJ, Adeyi O, Arnold R, Baldé AB, Zhong M. The Lancet Commission on pollution and health. The lancet. 2018; 391(10119), 462-512
https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(17)32345-0
46. Lelieveld J, Klingmüller K, Pozzer A, Burnett RT, Haines A, Ramanathan,V. Effects of fossil fuel and total anthropogenic emission removal on public health and climate. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2019; 116(15), 7192-7197.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1819989116
2. Nguyen LSP, Chang JHW, Griffith SM, et al. Trans-boundary air pollution in a Southeast Asian megacity: Case studies of the synoptic meteorological mechanisms and impacts on air quality. Atmos Pollut Res. 2022;13(4):101366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2022.101366
3. Fan Y, Li J, Zhu S, Li H, Zhou B. Trends and variabilities of precipitation and temperature extremes over Southeast Asia during 1981–2017. Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics. 2022;134(4):78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00703-022-00913-6
4. Nurdiati S, Sopaheluwakan A, Septiawan P. Joint pattern analysis of forest fire and drought indicators in Southeast Asia associated with ENSO and IOD. Atmosphere (Basel). 2022;13(8):1198. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13081198
5. Alahmad B, Khraishah H, Althalji K, Borchert W, Al-Mulla F, Koutrakis P. Connections between air pollution, climate change, and cardiovascular health. Canadian Journal of Cardiology. 2023;39(9):1182-1190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cjca.2023.03.025
6. Ustinaviciene R, Venclovienė J, Luksiene D, et al. Impact of Ambient Air Pollution with PM2.5 on Stroke Occurrence: Data from Kaunas (Lithuania) Stroke Register (2010–2022). Atmosphere (Basel). 2024;15(11):1327. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15111327
7. Othman M, Latif MT, Hamid, HHA, Uning R, Khumsaeng T, Phairuang W, Lung SCC. Spatial–temporal variability and health impact of particulate matter during a 2019–2020 biomass burning event in Southeast Asia. Scientific reports. 2022;12(1): 7630.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-11409-z
8. Health Effects Institute. State of Global Air 2025. A Report on Air Pollution and Its Role in the World’s Leading Causes of Death. 2025. https://www.stateofglobalair.org/resources/report/state-global-air-report-2025
9. Bikis A. Urban air pollution and greenness in relation to public health. J Environ Public Health. 2023;2023(1):8516622. https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/8516622
10. Lestari P, Arrohman MK, Damayanti S, Klimont Z. Emissions and spatial distribution of air pollutants from anthropogenic sources in Jakarta. Atmos Pollut Res. 2022;13(9):101521. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2022.101521
11. Haines A, Lam HCY. El Niño and health in an era of unprecedented climate change. The Lancet. 2023;402(10415):1811-1813. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(23)01664-1
12. Sharma S, Chandra M, Kota SH. Health effects associated with PM2.5: A systematic review. Curr Pollut Rep. 2020;6(4):345-367. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40726-020-00155-3
13. Burnett R, Chen H, Szyszkowicz M, et al. Global estimates of mortality associated with long-term exposure to outdoor fine particulate matter. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2018;115(38):9592-9597. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c01764.s001
14. Cohen AJ, Brauer M, Burnett R, et al. Estimates and 25-year trends of the global burden of disease attributable to ambient air pollution: an analysis of data from the Global Burden of Diseases Study 2015. The lancet. 2017;389(10082):1907-1918. https://doi.org/10.1289/isee.2014.o-308
15. Yim SHL, Hou X, Guo J, Yang Y. Contribution of local emissions and transboundary air pollution to air quality in Hong Kong during El Niño-Southern Oscillation and heatwaves. Atmos Res. 2019;218:50-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2018.10.021
16. Lee BPYH, Davies ZG, Struebig MJ. Smoke pollution disrupted biodiversity during the 2015 El Niño fires in Southeast Asia. Environmental Research Letters. 2017;12(9):94022. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aa87ed
17. Hayasaka H, Sepriando A. Severe air pollution due to peat fires during 2015 super El Niño in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Land-atmospheric research applications in South and Southeast Asia. Published online 2018:129-142. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67474-2_7
18. UNOCHA. Asia and the Pacific: El Niño in Review (2023-2024) . 2024. https://www.unocha.org/publications/report/afghanistan/asia-and-pacific-el-nino-review-2023-2024-10-may-2024
19. Abdullah S, Mansor AA, Napi NNLM, et al. Air quality status during 2020 Malaysia Movement Control Order (MCO) due to 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) pandemic. Sci Total Environ. 2020;729:139022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139022
20. Laoin P. Ministry monitoring air quality as pollution levels rise. Vientiane Times; 2020. Available from: https://www.vientianetimes.org.la/freeContent/FreeConten_Ministry_32.php
21. Dominutti, X Mari, JL Jaffrezo, VTN Dinh, S Chifflet, C Guigue, L Guyomarc’h, CT Vu. Disentangling fine particles (PM2.5) composition in Hanoi, Vietnam: Emission sources and oxidative potential Science of the Total Environment, 2024. Sci Total Environ. 2024;923: 171466. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.171466
22. Vongruang P, Suppoung K, Kirtsaeng S, Prueksakorn K, Thao PTB, Pimonsree S. Development of meteorological criteria for classifying PM2.5 risk in a coastal industrial province in Thailand. Aerosol Air Qual Res. 2024;24(10):230321. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.230321
23. PP No.22. Peraturan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia Nomor 22 tahun 2021 tentang Penyelenggaraan Perlindungan dan Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup. Kementerian Sekretariat Negara Republik Indonesia; 2021. Available from: https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Details/161852/pp-no-22-tahun-2021
24. Myanmar Govenrment. Myanmar National Environmental Quality (Emission) Guideliness. 2015. https://www.myanmar-responsiblebusiness.org/pdf/2015-12-29-National-Environmental-Quality_Emission_Guidelines_en.pdf
25. MSE Singapore. Clean Air | Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment. 2025. https://www.mse.gov.sg/policies/clean-air/
26. Zehri S, Yulihastin E, Marpaung F, et al. Diverse impact of 2023 El Niño on weather patterns over the Indonesian Maritime Continent. Journal of Southern Hemisphere Earth Systems Science . 2025;75(2). https://doi.org/10.1071/es25005
27. Nguyen THH, Wang G, Chen W, et al. Risk Assessment and Management Strategy of Coastal Erosion in the Red River Delta, Vietnam. Land 2025, Vol 14, Page 1247. 2025;14(6):1247. https://doi.org/10.3390/land14061247
28. Abdillah MR, Kanno Y, Iwasaki T, Matsumoto J. Cold surge pathways in east Asia and their tropical impacts. J Clim. 2021;34(1):157-170. https://doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-20-0552.1
29. Nguyen DN. Effects of ENSO on cold - air activities and tropical cyclones in Vietnam. Vietnam Journal of Science, Technology and Engineering. 2017;59(2):88-91. https://doi.org/10.31276/vjste.59(2).88
30. Naidin S, Sentian J, Adnan FAF, Herman F, Mohd Hashim SR. Decade-Long Analysis: Unravelling the Spatio-Temporal Dynamics of PM10 Concentrations in Malaysian Borneo. Aerosol Air Qual Res. 2024;24(2):230176. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.230176
31. Hassan Bran S, Macatangay R, Chotamonsak C, Chantara S, Surapipith V. Understanding the seasonal dynamics of surface PM2.5 mass distribution and source contributions over Thailand. Atmos Environ. 2024;331:120613. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2024.120613
32. Atkinson RW, Kang S, Anderson HR, Mills IC, Walton HA. Epidemiological time series studies of PM2.5 and daily mortality and hospital admissions: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Thorax. 2014;69(7):660-665. https://doi.org/10.1289/isee.2016.3648
33. Yin S, Wang X, Zhang X, Guo M, Miura M, Xiao Y. Influence of biomass burning on local air pollution in mainland Southeast Asia from 2001 to 2016. Environmental Pollution. 2019;254:112949. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.07.117
34. Wasi’ah NR, Iriana W, Qonita S. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science Comparison of Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5) in Urban Areas Southeast Asia in Compliance with WHO Guidelines. In: 2025. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1448/1/012009
35. Wan Mahiyuddin WR, Ismail R, Mohammad Sham N, Ahmad NI, Nik Hassan NMN. Cardiovascular and respiratory health effects of fine particulate matters (PM2.5): a review on time series studies. Atmosphere (Basel). 2023;14(5):856. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14050856
36. Nguyen HD, Bang HQ, Quan NH, Quang NX, Duong TA. Effect of Biomass Burnings on Population Exposure and Health Impact at the End of 2019 Dry Season in Southeast Asia. Atmosphere 2024, Vol 15, Page 1280. 2024;15(11):1280. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202407.1425.v1
37. Wei Y, Pu Z. Diurnal cycle of precipitation and near-surface atmospheric conditions over the maritime continent: land–sea contrast and impacts of ambient winds in cloud-permitting simulations. Clim Dyn. 2022;58(9):2421-2449. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-021-06012-3
38. Lestari P, Arrohman MK, Damayanti S, Klimont Z. Emissions and spatial distribution of air pollutants from anthropogenic sources in Jakarta. Atmos Pollut Res. 2022;13(9):101521. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2022.101521
39. Lestari P, Damayanti S, Arrohman MK. Emission Inventory of Pollutants (CO, SO2, PM2.5, and NOX) In Jakarta Indonesia. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci. 2020;489(1):012014. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/489/1/012014
40. Rahman SA, Hamzah MS, Elias MS, et al. A long term study on characterization and source apportionment of particulate pollution in Klang Valley, Kuala Lumpur. Aerosol Air Qual Res. 2015;15(6):2291-2304. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2015.03.0188
41. Kwan SC, Tainio M, Woodcock J, Hashim JH. Health co-benefits in mortality avoidance from implementation of the mass rapid transit (MRT) system in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Rev Environ Health. 2016;31(1):179-183. https://doi.org/10.1515/reveh-2015-0038
42. Molina LT, Velasco E, Retama A, Zavala M. Experience from Integrated Air Quality Management in the Mexico City Metropolitan Area and Singapore. Atmosphere 2019, Vol 10, Page 512. 2019;10(9):512. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos10090512
43. Amnuaylojaroen T, Parasin N. Pathogenesis of PM2.5-related disorders in different age groups: children, adults, and the elderly. Epigenomes. 2024;8(2):13. https://doi.org/10.3390/epigenomes8020013
44. Charusombat P. ASEAN cooperation on transboundary haze pollution: The perspective of institutional incremental change. Journal of Environmental Information Science. 2023;2022(2):1-12. https://doi.org/10.11492/ceispapersen.2022.2_1
45. Landrigan P J, Fuller , Acosta NJ, Adeyi O, Arnold R, Baldé AB, Zhong M. The Lancet Commission on pollution and health. The lancet. 2018; 391(10119), 462-512
https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(17)32345-0
46. Lelieveld J, Klingmüller K, Pozzer A, Burnett RT, Haines A, Ramanathan,V. Effects of fossil fuel and total anthropogenic emission removal on public health and climate. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2019; 116(15), 7192-7197.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1819989116
Authors
Sari, P. N., Putri, A. S. E., Yudison, A. P., Nursal, D. G. A., & Firdani, F. (2026). The role of monsoon dynamics in PM2.5 concentration during the 2023–2024 El Niño event in Southeast Asia: a public health concern. JURNAL RISET KESEHATAN POLTEKKES DEPKES BANDUNG, 18(1), 383–395. https://doi.org/10.34011/juriskesbdg.v18i1.3252
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.